Description: Domitian(/dmn,-in/;Latin:Domitianus; 24 October 51 18 September 96) was aRoman emperorwho reigned from 81 to 96. The son ofVespasianand the younger brother ofTitus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of theFlavian dynasty. Described as "a ruthless but efficient autocrat", his authoritarian style of ruling put him at sharp odds with theSenate, whose powers he drastically curtailed.Domitian had a minor and largely ceremonial role during the reigns of his father and brother. After the death of his brother, Domitian was declared emperor by thePraetorian Guard. His 15-year reign was the longest since that ofTiberius.As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing theRoman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the empire, and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome. Significant wars were fought in Britain, where his generalAgricolaattempted to conquerCaledonia(Scotland), and inDacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against KingDecebalus. Domitian's government exhibited strong authoritarian characteristics. Religious, military, and culturalpropagandafostered acult of personality, and by nominating himself perpetualcensor, he sought to control public and private morals. As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and thearmy, but considered a tyrant by members of theRoman Senate. Domitian's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials. He was succeeded the same day by his advisorNerva. After his death, Domitian's memory wascondemned to oblivionby the Senate, while senatorial andequestrianauthors such asTacitus,Pliny the Younger, andSuetoniuspropagated the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern revisionists instead have characterized Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat whose cultural, economic, and political programs provided the foundation of the peaceful second century. Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, the youngest son ofTitus Flavius Vespasianuscommonly known as VespasianandFlavia Domitilla Major.He had an older sister,Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also namedTitus Flavius Vespasianus.Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century. One such family, the Flavians, orFlavia gens, rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of theJulio-Claudian dynasty. Domitian's great-grandfather,Titus Flavius Petro, had served as acenturionunderPompeyduringCaesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at theBattle of Pharsalusin 48 BC.Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's sonTitus Flavius Sabinus I, Domitian's grandfather.Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possibleequestrianstatus through his services astax collectorin Asia and banker inHelvetia(modern Switzerland). By marryingVespasia Pollahe allied the Flavian family to the more prestigiousgens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sonsTitus Flavius Sabinus IIand Vespasian tosenatorialrank. Thepolitical careerof Vespasian included the offices ofquaestor,aedile, andpraetor, and culminated in aconsulshipin 51, the year of Domitian's birth. As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in theRoman invasion of Britainin 43.Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperorsCaligula(3741) andNero(5468).Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of apropagandacampaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under EmperorClaudius(4154) and his sonBritannicus. By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving asproconsulof theAfrica Provincein 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66.That same year Jews from theProvince of Judaearevolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as theFirst JewishRoman War. Vespasian was assigned to lead theRoman armyagainst the insurgents, with Tituswho had completed his military education by this timein charge of a legion. both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.Historian Brian Jones concludes inThe Emperor Domitianthat assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimesself-deprecatingsense of humour,and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing.Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, Domitian's formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power.On 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committedsuicideand with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in theRoman EmpireGalba,Otho,VitelliusandVespasiansuccessively vied for imperial power.News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city ofJerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor ofHispania Tarraconensis(modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor ofLusitania(modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vitalprovince of Egypt, which controlled thegrain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entirecity garrisonof Rome.Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at theFirst Battle of Bedriacum, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance withGaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian travelled toAlexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In Rome, Domitian was placed underhouse arrestby Vitellius, as a safeguard against Flavian aggression.Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69, the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian (under Marcus Antonius Primus) met at theSecond Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.In despair, Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of thePraetorian Guardthe imperialbodyguardconsidered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at theTemple of Concordbut at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to theCapitoline Hill. During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper ofIsisand spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus.By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title ofCaesarand the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire. Aftermath of the war Although the war had officially ended, a state ofanarchyand lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored byMucianusin early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year. In the meantime, Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate. He received the title ofCaesarand was appointed praetor with consular power.The ancient historianTacitusdescribes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions. Domitian's authority was merelynominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function. Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar'sentourage, promoting away Flavian generals such asArrius VarusandAntonius Primusand replacing them with more reliable men such asArrecinus Clemens.Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as theBatavian revoltinGaul.Batavianauxiliaries of theRhinelegions, led byGaius Julius Civilis, had rebelled with the aid of a faction ofTreveriunder the command ofJulius Classicus. Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-lawQuintus Petillius Cerialis. Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him, he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome. When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours.Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, once again, he was snubbed.With the return of Vespasian in late September, his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature. Before becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish.The city andtemple of Jerusalemwere completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved.For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus aRoman triumph. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war.The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificentwhite horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives. Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in theForum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at theTemple of Jupiter.Atriumphal arch, theArch of Titus, was erected at the south-east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war.Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus sharedtribunician powerwith his father, received seven consulships, thecensorship, and was givencommandof the Praetorian Guard; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire. As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such asCaesarorPrincepsIuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those ofaugur,pontifex,frater arvalis,magister frater arvalium, andsacerdos collegiorum omnium,but no office withimperium. He held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship. The other five were less prestigioussuffect consulships, which he held in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in mid-January. While ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance.Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade ofdemocracy. Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 24 June 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power norimperiumof any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign. Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80. In October/November 79,Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the surrounding cities ofPompeiiandHerculaneumunder metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and destroyed a number of important public buildings.Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 September 81, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to theSabineterritories.Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder,or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead,even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother.It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the knownbiasof the surviving sources. Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven.Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for thePraetorian campwhere he was proclaimed emperor. The following day, 14 September,the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office ofpontifex maximus, and the titles ofAugustus("venerable"), andPater Patriae("father of the country"). As emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign.By moving the centre of government to the imperialcourt, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete.According to Pliny the Younger, Domitian believed that the Roman Empire was to be governed as adivine monarchywith himself as thebenevolent despotat its head.[75]In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural andmoral authority.[76]To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the EmperorAugustus. Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration:edictswere issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.According to Suetonius, the imperialbureaucracynever ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption amongprovincial governorsand elected officials.Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule, those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favored family members, a policy that stood in contrast to thenepotismpracticed by Vespasian and Titus. Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy.The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor sinceTiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.Although the Senate's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, but rather wherever the Emperor was.Until the completion of theFlavian Palaceon thePalatine Hill, the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii, and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania andIllyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire. Palaces, villas, and other major buildings For his personal use, he was active in constructing many monumental buildings, including theVilla of Domitian, a vast and sumptuous palace situated 20km outside Rome in the Alban Hills. In Rome itself, he built thePalace of Domitianon thePalatine Hill. Seven other villas are linked with Domitian atTusculum,Antium,Sabaudia,Caieta,TerracinaandBaiae.Only that at Sabaudia has been positively identified. TheStadium of Domitianwas dedicated in 86 AD as a gift to the people of Rome as part of an Imperial building program, following the damage or destruction of most of the buildings on the Field of Mars by fire in 79 AD. It was Rome's first permanent venue for competitive athletics, and is today occupied by thePiazza Navona.In Egypt too, Domitian was quite active in constructing buildings and decorating them. He appears, together withTrajan, in offering scenes on the propylon of theTemple of HathoratDendera. Hiscartouchealso appears in the column shafts of the Temple ofKhnumatEsna. Economy Domitian's tendency towardsmicromanagementwas nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign.Upon his accession he revalued theRoman currencydramatically. He increased the silver purity of thedenariusfrom 90% to 98% the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87grams to 3.26grams. A financial crisis in 85 forced adevaluationof the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04grams respectively.Nevertheless, the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits. Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1.2 billionsestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army.[94]The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome. At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by theGreat Fire of 64, the civil war of 69 and the fire in 80.Much more than a renovation project, Domitian's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, achievements second only to those of Augustus.Among the most important new structures were anodeon, astadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architectRabirius.The most important building Domitian restored was theTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximuson the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with agildedroof. Among those completed were theTemple of Vespasian and Titus, theArch of Titusand theFlavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum), to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, orcongiaria, throughout Domitian's reign.The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86 he founded theCapitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprisingathletic displays,chariot racing, and competitions fororatory, music and acting.Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regulargladiatorialgames such as naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Lastly, he added two new factions to the chariot races, Gold and Purple, to race against the existing White, Red, Green and Blue factions. Military campaigns The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.His most significant military contribution was the development of theLimes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against theChatti, and across theDanubefrontier against theSuebi, theSarmatians, and theDacians. The conquest of Britain continued under the command ofGnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far asCaledonia, or modern dayScotland. Domitian also founded a newlegionin 82, theLegio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti.Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence,the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-dayAzerbaijan. As judged by the carved titles of Caesar, Augustus and Germanicus, the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD. Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however.Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola.Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaignsmore than any emperor since Augustusand raising their pay by one-third.While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned. Campaign against the Chatti Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct acensus, and suddenly ordered an attack on theChatti.For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75kilometres (46mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title ofGermanicus.[lDomitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",and a "mock triumph".The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89. Conquest of northern Britain (7784) One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-lawGnaeus Julius Agricolalargely concerns the conquest of northern Britain between 77 and 84.Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor ofRoman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modernScotland). In 82, Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.He fortified the coast facingIreland]and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a fewauxiliaries.He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond theRiver Forthinto Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed atInchtuthil.In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led byCalgacus, at theBattle of Mons Graupius.Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes andHighlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era. Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania.The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of theprovince of Africabut declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with theKingdom of Daciain the East. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategicwithdrawalof troops in the British province. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120kilometres (75mi) further south.The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury. Dacian wars (8588) The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along theDanuberiver. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by KingDecebalus, crossed the Danube into the province ofMoesia, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governorOppius Sabinus.[119]Domitian quickly launched acounteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefectCornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph. The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Fuscus was killed, and thebattle standardof the Praetorian Guard was lost.The loss of the battle standard, oraquila, was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride. Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command ofTettius Julianus, and finally defeatedDecebalusin late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.An attack on the Dacian capitalSarmizegetusawas forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89. In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peacefulclient kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses.Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia. Trajan continued Domitian's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars.]Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines. foretold, his death came at midday.Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years later, suggests that the assassination was improvised, while Suetonius implies it was a well-organized conspiracy,citing Stephanus' feigned injury and claiming that the doors to the servants' quarters had been locked prior to the attack and that a sword Domitian kept concealed beneath his pillow as a last line of personal protection against a would-be assassin, had also been removed beforehand.Dio included Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her attested devotion to Domitianeven years after her husband had diedher involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely.The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is unclear. One of the guard's commanders,Titus Petronius Secundus, was almost certainly aware of the plot. The other, Titus Flavius Norbanus, the former governor ofRaetia, was a member of Domitian's family.TheFasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that on the same day as Domitian's assassination, the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor.Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot.He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian. To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive.On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history,but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy.The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passeddamnatio memoriaeon Domitian's memory; his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.Domitian and, over a century later,Publius Septimius Getawere the only emperors known to have officially received adamnatio memoriae, though others may have receivedde factoones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on theCancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy. According to Suetonius, the people of Rome met the news of Domitian's death with indifference, but the army was much grieved, calling for his deification immediately after the assassination, and in several provinces rioting.As a compensation measure, the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander,Casperius Aelianus.[190]Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97, when members of the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laidsiegeto the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision nearlyabdicated
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