Description: Justinian I(/dstnin/;Latin:Iustinianus,Classical Latin:[iustinians];Greek:,translit.Ioustinians; 482 14 November 565), also known asJustinian the Great, was theEastern Roman emperorfrom 527 to 565. Justinian I Detail of a contemporary portraitmosaicof Justinian dressed in a royal purplechlamysand jeweled stemma in theBasilica of San Vitale,Ravenna. AD 547 His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realizedrenovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire".This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunctWestern Roman Empire.His general,Belisarius, swiftly conquered theVandal Kingdomin North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius,Narses, and other generals conquered theOstrogothic kingdom, restoringDalmatia,Sicily,Italy, andRometo the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. Thepraetorian prefect Liberiusreclaimed the south of theIberian peninsula, establishing the province ofSpania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a millionsolidi.During his reign, Justinian also subdued theTzani, a people on the east coast of theBlack Seathat had never been under Roman rule before.He engaged theSasanian Empirein the east duringKavad I's reign, and later again duringKhosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, theCorpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis ofcivil lawin many modern states.His reign also marked a blossoming ofEastern Roman (Byzantine) culture, and his building program yielded works such as theHagia Sophia. Justinian was born inTauresium,Dardania,probably in 482.A native speaker ofLatin(possibly the last Roman emperor to be one),he came from apeasantfamily believed to have been ofIllyro-RomanorThraco-Romanorigin. The nameIustinianus, which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncleJustin. During his reign, he foundedJustiniana Primanot far from his birthplace.His mother wasVigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (theExcubitors) before he became emperor,adopted Justinian, brought him toConstantinople, and ensured the boy's education.As a result, Justinian was well educated injurisprudence,theology, and Roman history.Justinian served as acandidatus, one of 40 men selected from thescholae palatinaeto serve as the emperor's personal bodyguard.The chroniclerJohn Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome. Another contemporary historian,Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical EmperorDomitian, although this is probably slander. TheCarmagnola, an imperialporphyryhead in Venice thought to represent Justinian A 6th-century head of an emperor at theGetty Villa, possibly Justinian When EmperorAnastasiusdied in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian.Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtualregentlong before Justin made him associate emperor,although there is no conclusive evidence of this.As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became thede factoruler.Following the generalVitalian's assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian was appointedconsuland commander of the army of the east.Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles ofnobilissimusandcaesar(heir-apparent).He wascrowned co-emperoron 1 April 527,and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August 527. As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach.Around 525, he married his mistress,Theodora, in Constantinople. She was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses.Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals includedTribonian, his legal adviser;Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministersJohn the CappadocianandPeter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals,BelisariusandNarses. Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during theNika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562.Justinian was struck by theplaguein the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine,became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565,childless. He was succeeded byJustin II, who was the son of his sisterVigilantiaand married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in theChurch of the Holy Apostlesuntil it was desecrated and robbed during thepillage of the city in 1204by theLatin Statesof theFourth Crusade. Reign Legislative activities Corpus Juris Civilis TheBarberini Ivory, thought to portray either Justinian orAnastasiusI Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of allRoman law, something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as theCorpus juris civilis. It consists of theCodex Justinianeus, theDigestaorPandectae, theInstitutiones, and theNovellae. Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed thequaestorTribonianto oversee this task. The first draft of theCodex Justinianeus, a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by theDigesta(orPandectae), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by theInstitutiones, a textbook explaining the principles of law. TheNovellae, a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements theCorpus. As opposed to the rest of the corpus, theNovellaeappeared inGreek, the common language of the Eastern Empire.[citation needed] TheCorpusforms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiasticalCanon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which theleges(laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws,senatorialconsults (senatusconsulta), imperial decrees,case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations (responsa prudentium). Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in theBasilikaofBasil IandLeo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-calledPragmatic Sanction of 554),from where it was to pass toWestern Europein the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to theAmericasand beyond in theAge of Discovery. It eventually passed toEastern Europewhere it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on toRussia.It remains influential to this day. He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from beingforced into prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice. Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg. Justinian discontinued the regular appointment ofConsulsin 541. Nika riots Nika riots Justinian's habit of choosing efficient but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of thechariot racingfactions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as theNika riots. They forced him to dismissTribonianand two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senatorHypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperorAnastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wifeTheodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generalsBelisariusandMundus. Procopius relates that 30,000unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment,Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed. The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domedHagia Sophia. Military activities One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century.As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore theRoman Empireto its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art.The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his generalBelisarius. Reconstruction of theColumn of Justinian, after Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912. The column was erected in theAugustaeuminConstantinoplein 543 in honour of his military victories. War with the Sassanid Empire, 527532 Iberian War From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with theSassanid Empire.In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat atDaraandSatala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius nearCallinicum.Justinian then tried to make alliance with theAxumitesof Ethiopia and theHimyaritesof Yemen against the Persians, but this failed.When kingKavadh I of Persiadied (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successorKhosrau I(532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, whereGermanickingdoms had been established in the territories of the formerWestern Roman Empire. Conquest of North Africa, 533534 Vandalic War The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of theVandalsinNorth Africa. KingHilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North AfricanCatholicclergy, had been overthrown by his cousinGelimerin 530 A.D. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return the kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concludedhis ongoing warwith theSassanian Empireand prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533. In 533,Belisariussailed to Africa with a fleet of 92dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed atCaput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia)in modernTunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, atAd Decimumon 14 September 533 andTricamarumin December; Belisarius tookCarthage. KingGelimerfled to Mount Pappua inNumidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in atriumph.SardiniaandCorsica, theBalearic Islands, and the strongholdSeptem FratresnearMons Calpe(later namedGibraltar) were recovered in the same campaign. A golden medallion celebrating the reconquest ofAfrica, AD 534 In this war, the contemporaryProcopiusremarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence." AnAfrican prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534,but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with theMoorsand military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548,but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold. War in Italy, first phase, 535540 Gothic War (535554) Justinian's conquests As in Africa, dynastic struggles inOstrogothic Italyprovided an opportunity for intervention. The young kingAthalarichad died on 2 October 534, and a usurper,Theodahad, had imprisoned queenAmalasuintha,Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana inLake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. ThereuponBelisarius, with 7,500 men,invadedSicily(535) and advanced into Italy, sackingNaplesand capturingRomeon 9 December 536. By that timeTheodahadhad been deposed by theOstrogothicarmy, who had electedVitigisas their new king. He gathered a large army and besiegedRomefrom February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general,Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign.Milanwas taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalledNarsesin 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisariusreachedthe Ostrogothic capitalRavenna. There he was offered the title ofWestern Roman Emperorby the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of thePo Riverin Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire.Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the capturedVitigisand his wifeMatasunthawith him. War with the Sassanid Empire, 540562 Lazic War Map of the ByzantineSasanian frontier in 565. In 541AD, the small but strategic region ofLazicaon the eastern shore of the Black Sea became the new battlefield of theRomanPersian Wars. Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by thePersians. Following a revolt against the Empire inArmeniain the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas ofOstrogothicambassadors, KingKhosrau Ibroke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540.He first sackedBeroeaand thenAntioch(allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city),besiegedDaras, and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom ofLazicanear theBlack Seaas requested by its discontented kingGubazes, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year. Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court.The outbreak of theplaguecoupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but the 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force atAnglon. The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfullybesiegedthe major city ofEdessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that, theLazic Warin the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sentDagisthaeustorecapture Petra, but he faced heavy resistance and the siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements. Justinian replaced him withBessas, who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed tocapture and dismantle Petrain 551. The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by aFifty Years' Peacein 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000solidi) to be paid by the Romans. War in Italy, second phase, 541554 While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kingsIldibadandEraric(both murdered in 541) and especiallyTotila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After avictoryatFaenzain 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating aGothicfleet of 200 ships.During this period the city ofRomechanged hands three more times, firsttaken and depopulatedby the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plunderedSicilyand attacked Greek coastlines. Spanish VisigothicgoldTremissisin the name of emperor Justinian I, 7th century. TheChristian crosson the breast defines the Visigothic attribution.British Museum. Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southernVisigothicHispania) under the command ofNarses.The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at thebattle of Busta Gallorumin theApennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle atMons Lactariusin October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scaleFrankishinvasion was defeated atCasilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men.The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold.Procopiusestimated 15,000,000 Goths died. Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought.The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply resented. The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southernHispaniasignificantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to the empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving theLombardsas a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa. Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historianMenander Protectorfelt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age.In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe. Religious activities Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especiallyMonophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as aheresyby theCouncil of Chalcedonin 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism ofZenoandAnastasius Ihad been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them. Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form ofAphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises. Religious policy As in his secular administration,despotismappeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in theTrinityand theIncarnation, and to threaten allhereticswith the appropriate penalties, whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense bydue processof law.He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church and accorded legal force to thecanonsof the fourecumenicalcouncils.The bishops in attendance at theCouncil of Constantinople (536)recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command,while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of thePatriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription.Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church andclergy, and to protect and extendmonasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receivesolemnia, or annual gifts, from theImperial treasuryor from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates. Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both theCodexand theNovellaecontain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church ofHagia Sophia(which cost 20,000 pounds of gold),the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, andmosaics, became the centre and most visible monument ofEastern Orthodoxyin Constantinople. Religious relations with Rome From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to theAcacian schism. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized theCouncil of Chalcedon, which had condemnedMonophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome.After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favoredVigiliusand had his rivalSilveriusdeported. This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of theThree Chapters, three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At theFifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, andPope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters. Authoritarian rule Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be theorthodoxy (Chalcedonian). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time ofConstantius IIand which would now vigorously continue. TheCodexcontained twostatutesthat decreed the total destruction ofpaganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas,Theophanes, andJohn of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position. The originalAcademyof Plato had beendestroyedby theRoman dictatorSullain 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, aNeoplatonic Academywas established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center forNeoplatonismand mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued. InAsia Minoralone, John of Ephesus was reported to haveconverted70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number.Other peoples also accepted Christianity: theHeruli,theHunsdwelling near theDon,theAbasgi,and theTzanniinCaucasia. The worship ofAmunat theoasisofAwjilain theLibyandesert was abolished, and so were the remnants of the worship ofIsison the island ofPhilae, at the firstcataractof theNile.ThePresbyter Julianand theBishop Longinusconducted a mission among theNabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthenChristianityinYemenby dispatching a bishop fromEgypt. Consulardiptychdisplaying Justinian's full name (Constantinople 521). The civil rights ofJewswere restricted and their religious privileges threatened.Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of thesynagogueand encouraged the Jews to use the GreekSeptuagintin their synagogues in Constantinople. The Emperor faced significant opposition from theSamaritans, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place inSamariatoward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that theManicheanstoo suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment.AtConstantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others bydrowning. Architecture, learning, art and literature The church ofHagia Sophiawas built at the time of Justinian. Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area.Under Justinian's reign, theSan Vitalein Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius.Most notably, he had theHagia Sophia, originally abasilica-style church that had been burnt down during theNika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision ofIsidore of MiletusandAnthemius of Tralles. On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice: "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made byIsidore the Younger. This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries. The presentBasilica of Saint Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria, is believed to be the fifth structure to be constructed on the site and was built during the reign of Emperor Justinian I. Another prominent church in the capital, theChurch of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt.The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamedLittle Hagia Sophia, was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple.Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of theGreat Palace of Constantinoplehave yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and acolumn topped by a bronze statueof Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in theAugustaeumin Constantinople in 543.Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige. Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of undergroundcisterns(seeBasilica Cistern). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border townDara,an advanced arch damwas built. During his reign the largeSangarius Bridgewas built inBithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth calledJustiniana Prima, which was intended to replaceThessalonicaas the political and religious centre ofIllyricum. In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, includingProcopiusandAgathias, and poets such asPaul the SilentiaryandRomanus the Melodistflourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famousLaw School of Berytuslost their importance during his reign. Economy and administration Byzantine silk Gold coin of Justinian I (527565) excavated inIndiaprobably in the south, an example ofIndo-Roman tradeduring the period As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north asCornwallwheretinwas exchanged for Roman wheat.Within the Empire, convoys sailing fromAlexandriaprovided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island ofTenedosfor storage and further transport to Constantinople.Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians. One important luxury product wassilk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541.In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with theAbyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India.Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded insmuggling eggs of silk wormsfromCentral Asiaback to Constantinople,and silk became an indigenous product. Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia. Scene from daily life on a mosaic from theGreat Palace of Constantinople, early 6th century At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000solidi(400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I andJustin I.Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of theprefecturesand of the provinces, while power was taken away from thevicariatesof thedioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure.According toBrown(1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns.It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000solidiin AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000solidiin AD 550. Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East thrived, althoughAntiochwas struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale. Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was theplague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages.The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s.The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance. Natural disasters An older Justinian; mosaic inBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (possibly a modified portrait ofTheodoric) 551 Beirut earthquake,Extreme weather events of 535536, andPlague of Justinian During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat. Theextreme weather events of 535536led to a famine such as had not been recorded before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East.These events may have been caused by an atmospheric dust veil resulting from a largevolcanic eruption. The historianProcopiusrecorded in 536 in his work on theVandalic War"during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear". The causes of these disasters are not precisely known, but volcanoes at theRabaul caldera,Lake Ilopango,Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, inIcelandare suspected. Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak ofBubonic Plague, known as thePlague of Justinianand second only toBlack Deathof the 14th century, killed tens of millions. Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence. The impact of this outbreak of plague has recently been disputed, since evidence for tens of millions dying is uncertain. In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the551 Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. The combined fatalities of both events likely exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria.
Price: 65 USD
Location: Reading, Pennsylvania
End Time: 2024-01-09T02:59:21.000Z
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All returns accepted: ReturnsNotAccepted
Historical Period: Byzantine (300-1400 AD)
Era: Ancient
Certification: NGC
